ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Animal Husbandry is the management of domestic animals such as cattle, poultry, pigs, sheep and goats etc for optimum production. it is science and art of producing and keeping livestock. The primary objective of any livestock enterprise is to achieve maximum productivity and profitability. This involves sound application of basic scientific principles to suit the situation to perfection so that it becomes an art. These situations vary from country, region to region and from time to time.

Livestock management in developing countries is still in a primitive state. Livestock management involves the integrated application of the principles of animal breeding, feeding, housing, organisation and disease control in a manner suitable for a particular situation. Therefore, an effort has been made to just throw light on the basic principles and discuss the applied aspects of the same in some detail. Management of livestock involves doing a large number of small jobs at the proper time and in a proper manner.

Reasons for keeping Livestock

1. Sources of food (meat, milk, eggs).

2. For sale: sold in the general market in exchange for money, which could be used in earning a living.

3. For transport and power (donkeys, camels, horses); Oxen, horses and donkeys are used for pulling ploughs, cultivators and rollers on the farm.

4. For enjoyment aspects (dogs, cats): Some are kept in the zoo for people to look at and in some institutions are used for practical lessons and aids for students.

5. Religious celebrations: Some animals are reared for religious festivals and rituals. Moslems in Nigeria use rams during the Id-el Kabir festivals. While Christians during the Christmas day slaughter cattle, poultry, sheep and goats.

6. For social reasons: Goats, sheep and poultry are used for certain rites in traditional religion. It is also prestigious or gives or status for having a large number of livestock.

Cattle husbandry

The Northern areas are the main centres of animal production in Nigeria although livestock is raised in other parts of the country. Cattle are very important domestic animals. They help to raise the economy of this nation. Besides their economic value, these animals play a vital role in the religion and social customs of many people in Nigeria.

*Breeds of cattle*

(i) Sokoto Gudali (vii) Brown Swiss

(ii) White Fulani (viii) Jersey

(iii) Muturu (ix) Holstein Friesian

(iv) N'dama (x) Kuri

(v) Red Bororo (xi) Azawal

(vi) Keteku (Borgu) (xii) Wadara (Shuwa)

Housing: Environmental conditions must be controlled by suitable housing so as to protect animals from inclement weather conditions, if good productivity is expected of them. In Nigeria, as not much of attention is paid so far to this important aspect - animal housing, we find different types of animal houses constructed without careful planning and designing. Farm buildings should be properly located, constructed, spaced out and grouped. Economy in their initial cost and maintenance and the health and comfort of animals should receive special attention, and they should lead to efficient management so as to reduce labour to the minimum.

horn, poll, forehead or brow, face, muzzle, dewlap, brisket, knee, shank, withers, hump, back, loin, rump, flank, tail, girth, chest, elbow, belly, navel flap (sheath in male), teat, udder, hock, switch

Types of housing: It is impossible to design an ideal set of buildings which would be equally suitable for livestock farming all over the country, owing to the different methods of animal husbandry and/or farming priorities, which in turn are governed by climatic, geographic, economic and other conditions. All the same, there are broadly speaking, two types of livestock houses: namely, conventional barns and loose houses. Strictly speaking this classification holds good for dairy cattle housing only. What is followed for the other types of livestock can be said as the modifications of these two houses.

(a) Conventional barns: These are so called stanchion barns. These refer to housing in which the cows are confined together on a platform and secured at neck by stanchion or neck chains. The cows are fed as well as milked in this barn. The barns are completely roofed and the walls are also complete with windows and/or ventilators located at suitable places.

(b) Loose housing: This comprises of keeping cows loose in an open paddock or pasture throughout the day and night except at milking time. The open paddock is provided with shelter along one side under which the animals can retire when it is very hot or cold or during rains. A common watering tank is provided and fodder is fed in common mangers. The open paddock is enclosed by means of half walls or wooden or plain wire fences of convenient height. All types of livestock can be housed and managed under loose housing system.

 Section of a loose house showing internal details._

A = Roof supporting structures, B = Manger, C = Covered area, D = Roof, E = Gutter, F = Open area, G = Compound wall.

Fig. 81 Section of a loose house showing internal details. A = Roof supporting structures, B = Manger, C = Covered area, D = Roof, E = Gutter, F = Open area, F = Compound wall.

*Natural shelters:* Natural shelters include natural wind breaks, hills, valleys and trees.

*Advantages of conventional barns*

1. Protect animals during severe cold and harsh weather.

2. Provide dry bed for the animals.

3. Provide storage for feed and breeding when necessary.

4. Conserve the fertility and value of the manure.

5. Protect young calves.

Free ranges: Free ranges or the so-called ranches indicate a type of stock management rather than a type of housing. This comprises of leaving stock free in a large estate - sometimes extending to thousands of square metres. The farm headquarters is situated generally at the centre of estate. The area is generally a natural or cultivated pasture land with water points and shelters located at convenient places. This type of farming is suited for those animals that are not handled daily such as beef cattle and sheep to produce well. It is an important factor in the management of farm animals. The growth and production of by products of livestock depends on how adequately the animals are fed. The farmer must know the type and quantity of feeds required by his animals. The feeding requirements of farm animals vary and are dependent on (a) their digestive system (b) purpose of production and (c) age.

Young growing animals require about three percent of their body weight as feed daily, while adult animals require about one and a half percent of their body weight.

Cattle feeds can be divided into two major groups: (a) Roughages (b) Concentrates. Roughages contain a large quantity of fibre but are low in protein while concentrates are feeds that contain only a small of fibre.

Systems of cattle management:

Generally, there are three main systems of cattle management. They are:

(i) Intensive method:This is a system whereby the animals are confined most of the time, pens are built to house them, and most of the feeds are brought to the pens. Movement outside the pens is restricted, but the animals may be allowed to graze. This system is used to produce animals with good conformation in the shortest possible time. Often used on dairy farms and for the production of special meat. This method is not common in Nigeria, for it requires a lot of capital and local breeds do not have the genetic qualities required.

(ii) Semi-intensive system:This is a midway between intensive and extensive systems. This system provides some sort of shelter with food and water supply for the animals. At the same time it gives them the choice of roaming within a sick animal. Adequate feed and water are essential for the good health of farm animals. Farm animals should be vaccinated at various stages of their development against certain diseases. It is also essential to add some drugs and antibiotics such as terramycin to livestock feed to protect farm animals from diseases. Observe and check them daily, isolate any animal that shows the slightest sign of being sick, protect the animals from harmful factors, especially external and internal parasites and diseases is necessary in cattle management. Ticks and worms are the major pests of cattle. Rotational grazing and proper grazing management will help to reduce worm infestation.

Weaning: This is the act of giving young animals their independence from their mothers. It is the age when animals can survive on their own. In cattle, weaning is very gradual and takes place usually between the 3rd and the 16th week. During this period, whole milk and milk substitutes are used for feeding while the fixed area for extra food. This area is usually fenced in. Animals here spend more time outside their pens. The houses are not completely walled, and rails are preferable to solid walls. These should be about 2 metres high. This system is also known as ranching.

(iii) *Extensive system:* This provides the main source of beef animals in Nigeria. It involves bush grazing with little or no improved pastures. The system involves the movement of both the herdsmen and cattle under the influence of rainfall, availability of grazing grassland. The natural pastures often fail to provide a maintenance ration for the animals, especially during the dry season. Although during the wet season abundance of grassland prevails, the presence of the tsetse fly limits the area of grazing. In this system, no housing, organised care and feeding programmes are not provided and therefore the animals are thrown to natural hazards.

Hygiene: Adequate sanitation, ventilation and comfortable bedding should be provided especially for the breeding cows and the young calves. Keeping the animals healthy is much more important than curing, calves should also be allowed to nibble at grass.

Goat husbandry

Goats are one of the commonest domestic animals throughout Nigeria. Its popularity lies in the fact that no section of the community discriminates against it on any ground whether religious, social or cultural. As a result, the population of goats kept is greater than that of any other animal except poultry.

Breeds of goat

(i) West African dwarf

(ii) Sokoto Red (Maradi)

(iii) The Sahel

(iv) Kano Brown

(v) Bornu Red

(vi) Anglo-Nubian

(vii) British Saanen

(viii) Toggenburg

(ix) Angola

(x) Keshmeri

Housing: Goats are reared for milk or meat and so require some buildings for effective management. Goats do not require any elaborate buildings. Simply dry and clean sheltered enclosures are all that is needed. Often the flocks are opened in the open during fair weather and some temporary shelters are made use of in time of extremely bad environmental conditions. Goats can be economically reared under ranch system. Buildings include (a) shed for ram or buck (b) kidding shed (c) kid shed (d) sick animal shed

Feeding:Goats have special feeding habits different from other ruminants. With the aid of their mobile upper lips and very prehensile tongues goats are able to graze on very short grass and to browse on foliage which is not and common feed of other livestock. Under extensive conditions, goats may be used to convert otherwise useless browse plants into milk and meat. The special feeding habits of the goats enable them to meet their nutrient requirements under adverse feeding conditions in which quality and quantity of feeds available are inadequate for other species.

Under semi-intensive conditions, supplementary grazing with harvested green fodder and concentrates become necessary. Under intensive system of confinement rearing, all the roughages and concentrates have to be provided. The amounts to be fed depends on body weight, age, physiological status and milk yield. About two-thirds of the energy requirements of mature goats should be met through roughages.

Depending on the quality of the forages the mature goat will consume about 7kg of green fodder daily (five does consume equivalent to a cow).

Weaning:Under the traditional system of weaning, the male kid is weaned earlier (8-10 weeks) than the female kid which is allowed to stay with the mother up to 3-4 months when the horns start to cause some injury to the mother. The male kid tends to mount the mother if weaning is not done early enough.

Hygiene: Ensure that the environment is kept clean, always use disinfectants to wash, clean the houses of the animals whenever any of the animals is sick try to isolate it to prevent the sickness from spreading and immediately contact a veterinary doctor. Give vaccination to newly born animals and closely watch what they consume. Deworm them regularly because young animals are prone to worm infestation. Wash them clean with disinfectant or in dips to protect them from ectoparasites. Ensure that their feed and water containers are washed clean.

Sheep husbandry

Sheep are maintained in the tropics mainly for the production of meat, their other function is being to supply skins, milk, manure and hair. There is practically no demand for wool within the region and, in fact, a striking feature of indigenous tropical sheep is that they carry either a completely hairy coat or one which has such a small proportion of wool that it has no spinning and hide felting quality.

Sheep play an important role in the socio-economic life of the people of Nigeria. They also make a significant contribution to national economy. They also feature prominently in socio-cultural functions like ceremonies and religious feasts, sheep and in particular the rams are favourite slaughtered animals during moslem festivals at which time fattened rams command very high market prices. There are no taboos to the consumption of mutton.

Breeds of sheep

(i) West African dwarf

(ii) Balami

(iii) Uda

(iv) Yankasa

(v) Dorset Horn

(vi) Border Leicester

(vii) Lohi

Housing: Requirements of buildings units are more or less the same for sheep and goats. They are easier to control and restrict than goats. Sheep do not require any elaborate buildings. Simple dry and clean sheltered enclosure are all that is needed. No elaborate housing is necessary but provision should be made not only for protection of the sheep but also for the handling of the milk to keep it free from dirt and taint. The building therefore must be constructed so that it is dry and cool, is well ventilated and can be kept in a sanitary conditions at all times and in all seasons. Housing constructed for sheep management include: (a) General flock shed. (b) Shed for ram. (c) Lambing shed. (d) Shearing room. (e) Accessory buildings and (f) Buildings for milch sheep farms.

Feeding: Sheep are naturally fed on pastures: They thrive best on forage that is short and fine rather than high and coarse, hence they are selective feeders. Usually, they prefer some types of grasses and legumes although they do eat some weeds and brush. Thus, this animal fits ideally in a mixed farming system. At present, extensive grazing on marginal grasslands is going on. The indigenous breeds of sheep can subsist under the most adverse circumstances on scanty feeding. But their productivity is very low compared to exotic breeds.

Weaning:If the lambs have not been sold by the time they reach 14 weeks old (e.g. as fat lambs), they must be weaned. This merely involves moving the lambs from their mothers and taking care that they are out of earshot; from now on they will be totally independent of their mothers.

Rabbit husbandry: The rearing of rabbits as domestic animals is not yet popular in Nigeria because its potentialities as a rich source of protein have not been recognised by many. Rabbits is still being kept as a pet. They have simple stomach like pigs, but with an enlarged caecum. They are classified as non-ruminants under the digestive system of animals.

Nevertheless rabbit keeping has many advantages. It could be fed on a wide range of feeding stuff. Its meat has been found to be very nutritious, low in fat and fine grained which is a suitable alternative to poultry meat. It can convert feed into meat quite efficiently. It supplies also for its raising has become a popular project for schools and colleges as most of the hutches (houses for rabbits) are made with locally available materials.

*Breeds of rabbit*

(i) New Zealand White

(ii) Chinchilla

(iii) Californian White

(iv) Flemish Giant

(v) Angora

(vi) Lop

(vii) Beveren

(viii) Dutch.

Housing: Rabbits live in hutches which could be housed in a building or placed in a shade in mild climates. Many rabbits are kept in chicken houses where either the wire or wooden cages are used. The traditional hutch system is widely practised by house holds where small numbers are kept. Adult rabbits are usually or generally housed in individual cages while weaned rabbits are allowed to reach marketable age either in their mother's pen or reared together in colonies. It is important that the house should protect the rabbits from direct rays of the sun from excessive heat, rain and strong winds. The ventilation should be adequate to avoid the smell of ammonia and other forms of discomfort.

Some hutches or cages have a floor area of 2 sq. metres for a doe and her litter up till slaughter weight at 8 weeks. The average dimension for breeding hutches is 75cm x 60cm for the smaller breeds and 120cm x 60cm for the largest size breeds. The hutches are constructed about 50cm off the ground. Hutches should be constructed in single, double or even three-tier units, provided that the tiers are separated by metal dropping trays, with wooden frames covered with glass or plastic to prevent corrosion of the metal surfaces.

Feeding: Rabbits can be maintained on a ration consisting of roughage, home grown vegetables and cereal grains. The feeding stuff is made up of concentrates often made into pellets and succulent forage crops and grasses. The concentrate feed is used to supplement the vegetable feed. The vegetable feed is only used as a maintenance ration for adults. The concentrate feed which has protein content of at times as high as 24% should be added for the production ration. It is usually balanced with adequate supply of vitamins and all the essential minerals. These feeds are generally supplemented with salt and a source of calcium such as bone meal. Concentrates can be fed to rabbits in a mash form when it is home produced or in a pellet form as in most commercial operations. There are a number of green feeds which rabbits like and some of these should be cut daily and put into the cages every evening. A few of the plants which rabbits like include weeds like _Aspilia africana_, vegetables such as _Talinum_. Forage legumes like _Stylosanthes gracilis_ and _Centrosema pubescence_ and grasses such as _Panicum maximum_ and _Pennisetum purpureum_ has been found to be equally relished by rabbits.

Rabbits eat more at night than during the day, especially in warm weather. Hence, plenty of feeds and greens should be provided in the evenings.

Weaning: Young rabbits should not leave the nest till they are about 3 weeks. There is however a tendency for those underfed by the doe to leave earlier to pick food outsides. Some breeders wean at the 6th week but weaning should be at the 8th week. The doe is removed, served and placed in a different hutch.

Pig husbandry

The primary purpose of pig farming all over the world is the production of meat; secondary considerations are the production of pig skin, bristles and manure. The pig is not a popular domestic animal in West Africa as the production of cattle, sheep and goats, primary for social, economic and religious reasons. It is thought of as a dirty animal, sleeping during the day in dirty muddy water and soiling its environment with excrement and unpleasant odour. It is also known to be a secondary host for tapeworm which may be transmitted to human beings.

Pigs have a good capacity for sustaining a fast rate of growth, achieving maturity early and for being prolific. Pig meat is known as pork and salted or smoked meat from the back and sides is referred to as bacon.

Breeds of pig

(i) Large White

(ii) Large Black

(iii) Duroc Jersey

(vii) Landrace

(viii) Chester White

(iv) Poland China

(v) West African dwarf

(vi) Hampshire.

Housing: Experiments carried out all over the world have shown that housing of pigs in proper structures is essential. Swine buildings apart from providing protection against inclement weather should also provide proper hygienic conditions required to maintain the healthy growing of pigs. A sort of semi-indoor system of swine farming in loose houses is generally suitable in this country. Sheds for pigs are known as sties. There shall be sties to house pigs of different ages separately.

There should be sties for breeding stock and sties for young stock.

*Feeding:* Pig consume more feed per unit body weight than to lamb, chicken or calves. They are also more efficient in converting feed than other species. This results in faster gain per unit body weight. Pig, being an omnivorous monogastric animal, can digest only smaller quantity of crude fibre than ruminants. Therefore, their capacity to utilize roughages is limited. They are fed ground or crushed cereal grains and their by-products such as maize bran, wheat bran, and rice bran. They are also fed concentrates such as groundnut cake, palm kernel cakes, soya bean cake and animal protein concentrates e.g. fish meal. Water is essential and fresh succulent green leaves should be fed to pigs kept inside to provide the necessary vitamins and minerals.

Weaning: Weaning or separation of the sow from the piglets occur at eight weeks. Ideally, piglets should weigh 12kg at 6 weeks and 16kg at 8 weeks. The process of weaning should be carried out gradually over four or five days. The sow should be removed for a part of the day and returned, then for a whole day, and finally for good. Extra care must be given to the piglets at this time so as to minimise the shock of separation.

Poultry husbandry:

Poultry refers to the birds which are domesticated to man. It includes such birds as

(i) Chickens

(ii) Ducks

(iii) Geese

(v) Guinea fowl

(vi) Swan

(vii) Quail

(viv) Turkeys

(ix) Pigeon

(x) Ostriches

(xi) Pea fowl or Peacock.

Nevertheless, as a converter of vegetable food into animal protein, the specialized domestic hen's efficiency is high, in fact, it is estimated that, in terms of food conversion, poultry eggs rank with cow's milk in being the most economically produced animal protein, and that poultry flesh ranks above that of other domestic animals in this respect. It has so many advantages over the other domesticated animals whose production is very much hindered by lack of money, high temperature, release and lack of food at certain periods of the year. Therefore, it becomes necessary to pay more attention to the poultry industry through better management - the use of high producing breeds, good fencing, housing, protection from bad weather conditions and careful marketing.

Breeds of poultry

(i) Rhode Island Red

(ii) Sussex

(iii) Plymouth Rock

(iv) New Hampshire

(v) Leghorn (Brown and White)

(vi) Cochin

(vii) Cornish

(viii) Black Samaru

(ix) Balandi

(x) Wyandottes.

Housing: Housing provides ideal condition for fowls. Location of house should be in a well drained area, not prone to storms or floods. It should be accessible to the road for transportation of materials. Where possible it should have an East-West orientation. Houses for poultry should not cost much. A good fowl or chicken house should have the following qualities.

(a) Good ventilation and enough light.

(b) Adequate floor space for the types of birds.

(c) A healthy or conducive temperature.

Usually houses are used for restricted range system, deep litter and battery cage. Houses can also be classified as:

(a) Brooder houses

(b) Rearing houses

(c) Laying houses.

Brooding house are used for brooding chicks, while rearing houses are used for rearing chickens from the time they need no more heat supplied, till they reach laying stage if they are pullets or sold out as broilers. In tropics the roof of laying houses should be painted white or thatching to avoid excess heat. The roof should be ceiled and the walls made of wire netting to prevent entry of flies, parasites, adverse weather conditions, reptiles and rodents that may disturb the birds. Also included in these houses are the following:

(a) Perches

(b) Nest boxes

(c) Water dishes

(d) Dry mash hoppers, and

(e) Dropping boards.

System of poultry management

1. Extension or the open range system

In this system birds are allowed to roam freely about under natural conditions and feed themselves. The cost of maintenance is reduced to a minimum; because the birds are usually not fed by the farmer and there is little labour involved. Were it not that the birds are exposed to beast of prey and to infectious disease, the system would in many circumstances be the most suitable for hens of imported breeds.

2. The Intensive system

(a) The fold system: Is particularly useful for rearing chicks from eight weeks old and, under certain circumstances, for layers. It is unsuitable in arid countries during hot weather where shade cannot be arranged. Groups of from 24-50 birds, according to their age, are confined in a movable wired-in-run with attached housing just large enough to accommodate them at night. The unit is moved to fresh ground at frequent intervals, preferably each day, and so most of the benefits of open range are obtained. The system allows orderly use of cropped land in a way which suits poultry and benefits the land by the even distribution of the poultry droppings.

(b) The built-up litter system (Deep litter system):

Is so called because the poultry are kept continuously indoors on a layer so laid and maintained that it encourages the multiplication within it of micro-organisms which break down the droppings and, eventually, the litter into a mass of fine, dry, friable material which except when it smells of ammonia, is practically odourless and is comparatively hygienic. The system chief advantages are that it allows great economy of land and labour and that in cold climates the litter, by insulating the birds from the coldness of the surrounding ground and by itself generating a certain amount of heat tends to counter the adverse effect of wintry seasons.

(c) The battery cage system

Under skilled management the battery system housing has proved to be the best in regard to egg production, efficiency of food conversion and mortality. The hens, either singly or in pairs, are confined in a cage. The usually floor space allowed is (38 x 46cm) for singles and (46 x 46cm) for doubles. The height should be (43.2cm). The floor is made of stout galvanized wire, slopes (10.2cm) in the front of the cage, into which the eggs roll as they are laid. Underneath is a tray for droppings. Both food and water receptacles are outside the cage. It has the advantage of saving space as the batteries are set up in tiers, of providing the best opportunity for close individual supervision so that the capabilities and productiveness of each bird can be ascertained or minimizing the chances of infection and helping to prevent spread of disease and giving each bird the quiet and effortless life which is conducive to maximum egg production

Feeding: Poultry differs from other farm animals in that their senses of taste and smell are poorly developed, and to them the palatability of a food largely depends upon its appearance and feel. Light-coloured material with a smooth surface appeal to them. Birds require different types of feed at different stages of their growth. Chicks mash are fed to chicks from day old to 8 weeks of age. From about 8 weeks above the chicken are termed growers. They are fed with "growers mash" supplemented with green vegetables until the 16th week. For broilers as from 12th week and above it could be marketable but for layers, it stays for about 22 weeks before it reaches point of layer. Broiler starter are fed to broilers from 9th-14th weeks and broiler finisher fed from 13th week of age until they reach market size.

Incubators: Incubation is the process of providing fertilized eggs with optimum conditions of temperature, relative humidity and air flow necessary for the development of chicks and their successful hatching. There are 2 types of incubation, namely

(i) Natural Incubation

(ii) Artificial Incubation

The incubator is the most important equipment in hatchery and many types of incubators are made, ranging in size from small to room type. Eggs are set in trolleys. Relative humidity should be 60-70% standard temperature requirement for the first 3 weeks are as follows:

(a) First week 32°—35°C

(b) Second week 29.5°—32°C

(c) Third week 27°C—29.5°C

Testing for fertility

Infertile eggs and dead embryo can be detected about six days after incubation by the process of candling. It consists of the passage of concentrated source of light through the egg in a dark room in order to see through the egg.

Advantages of artificial incubation

1. Hens do not have to stop egg production consequently, a large number of eggs is produced in a small period.

2. Large number of eggs are incubated and hatched at the same time; incubators of over 100,000 eggs capacity are known.

Hatching: The 21 days incubation period of domestic fowl can be seen as consisting of first 18-19 days incubation and last 2-3 days hatching.